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BUFFER - ACETATE, BORATE, PHOSPHATE, TRIS - EDTA

Preparation of Buffers: Phosphate, Acetate, Tris HCl, Borate Objective: To prepare commonly used buffers for molecular biology experiments: Phosphate, Acetate, Tris HCl-EDTA, and Borate buffers. These buffers are essential for maintaining pH stability during biochemical reactions, DNA/RNA extraction, and other lab processes. Materials: Distilled Water Phosphoric acid (H₃PO₄) or Sodium phosphate (NaH₂PO₄, Na₂HPO₄) for Phosphate buffer Acetic acid (CH₃COOH) or Sodium acetate (CH₃COONa) for Acetate buffer Tris (Tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane) for Tris-HCl buffer Borax (Sodium tetraborate, Na₂B₄O₇) for Borate buffer pH Meter or pH Paper for checking and adjusting pH Balance for weighing chemicals Beakers, graduated cylinders, or volumetric flasks for making solutions Magnetic stirrer or glass rod for mixing solutions Hot plate or water bath (if needed to dissolve certain chemicals) General Buffer Preparation Procedure: For all buffer preparations, use distilled water and adjust the...
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Study of Meiosis Using Permanent Slides

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  Study of Meiosis Using Permanent Slides  Objective: To observe and identify the stages of meiosis using prepared permanent slides, and to  understand the process of meiosis and its role in sexual reproduction.  Introduction:  Meiosis is a type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, resulting in four  genetically diverse haploid cells from one diploid parent cell. It is crucial for sexual reproduction  and occurs in two main stages: meiosis I and meiosis II. Permanent slides of various organisms  are often used to study meiosis, as they provide a clear view of the different stages.  Materials and Reagents:  1. Permanent Slides of Meiosis Stages: Prepared slides with stained specimens showing  various stages of meiosis (e.g., from plant or animal tissues).  2. Microscope: Equipped with objective lenses (4x, 10x, 40x, and 100x) and an eyepiece.   Procedure:  1. Preparing the Microscopy Setup:...
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Study of Mitosis Using Onion Root Tip

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  Study of Mitosis Using Onion Root Tip  Objective: To observe and identify the stages of mitosis in the onion root tip cells and  understand the cell division process.  Introduction:  Mitosis is a process of cell division that results in two genetically identical daughter cells from a  single parent cell. The onion root tip is a commonly used specimen for studying mitosis because  it has a high rate of cell division. The root tip provides an ideal site to observe the various stages  of mitosis due to the continuous growth of root cells.  Materials and Reagents:  1. Fresh Onion (Allium cepa) root tip 2. Microscope Slides and Coverslips  3. Microscope  4. Staining Solution: ( e.g., Aceto-orcein/Toluidine Blue O/Acetocarmine ) 5. Acetic Acid (for fixing)  6. 0.1 N Hydrochloric Acid (for hydrolysis)  7. Pipettes, Needle and Dropper  8. Distilled Water  9. Scalpel or Blade  10. Forceps  11. Watch ...
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Microscopy

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Microscopy   1) Bright Field Microscopy  Objective: To understand the principles, components, and applications of bright field  microscopy, a fundamental tool in biological and medical research for observing stained or  naturally pigmented specimens.  Introduction:  Bright field microscopy is the simplest and most commonly used type of light microscopy. It  works by passing light through a specimen, with the light either being absorbed, transmitted, or  scattered by the specimen’s structures. The contrast between the specimen and the surrounding  medium allows for the visualization of the specimen’s details. Bright field microscopy is  particularly effective for viewing stained specimens, where different components of the sample  absorb different wavelengths of light, providing the necessary contrast for detailed observation.  Principle:  In bright field microscopy, a specimen is illuminated by light from below the st...
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